Cayuga (In Cayuga Gayogo̱hó:nǫ’) is a Northern Iroquoian language of the Iroquois Proper (also known as "Five Nations Iroquois") subfamily, and is spoken on Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation, Ontario, by around 100 Cayuga people.

  Dialects

There were at one time two distinct dialects of Cayuga. One is still spoken in Ontario, the other, called "Seneca-Cayuga," was spoken in Oklahoma until the 1980s.

  Phonology

  Modern dialects

There are two varieties of Cayuga. The Lower Cayuga dialect is spoken by those of the Lower End of the Six Nations and the Upper Cayuga are from the Upper End. The main difference between the two is that the Lower Cayuga use the sound [gj] and the Upper use the sound [dj]. ^[1] Also, pronunciation differs between individual speakers of Cayuga and their preferences.

  Vowels

There are 5 oral vowels in Cayuga, as well as four long vowels, [i:], [a:], [o:], and [e:]. ^[2] Cayuga also has 3 nasalized vowels, [ẽ], [õ], and [ã]. ^[3] Both [u] and [ã] are rare sounds in Cayuga. Sometimes, the sounds [u] and [o] are used interchangeably according on each individual speaker's preference. After long [e:] and [o:], an [n] sound can be heard, especially when before [t], [d], [k], [g], [ts], and [j]. ^[4]

Vowels can be devoiced allophonically, indicated in the orthography used at Six Nations by underlining them.

^[5]

  Long vowels

Length is important because it alone can distinguish two completely different meanings from one another. For example:
[haʔseʔ] you are going
[haʔse:] you went ^[6]

  Devoiced vowels

Following are some words that demonstrate what some vowels sound like when they occur before [h]. [ehaʔ], [ẽhaʔ], [ohaʔ], and [õha], [e] and [ẽ] sound like a whispered [j], and [o] and [õ] sound like a whispered [w]. Furthermore, the [ã] in [ẽhãʔ] and [õhã] is nasalized because of [ẽ] and [õ]. The consonant before the nasalized vowel becomes voiceless.^[7] Also, odd-numbered vowels followed by [h] are devoiced, while even-numbered vowels followed by [h] are not. ^[8]

  Consonants

The first sound in each pair is voiceless.

^[9]

Allophonic variations that occur in Cayuga:
[d] becomes devoiced [t] before devoiced consonants. The sound [d] does not exist word-finally. ^[10]
[g] becomes devoiced [k] before devoiced consonants.
[s] becomes [ʃ] before [j] or [ɹ].

[ʤ] becomes [dz] and [ds] before [a] and [o], respectively. Speakers may use [dz] and [ds] interchangeably according to the speaker’s preference.

[w] can be voiceless (sounds like [h] followed by [w]).
[j] can also be voiceless (sounds like [h] followed by [j])

[h]: “A vowel devoices if the vowel and a following [h] are in an odd-numbered syllable.” ^[11] For example:
the [õ] in [ ehyádõhkwaʔ] ^[12]

The vowel is voiced when it and a following [h] are in an even-numbered syllable and in “absolute word-initial position or in word-final position, or preceded by another [h].” ^[13] For example:
[shehó:wih] 'tell her'
[ehyá:dõh] 'she writes' ^[14]

  Accent

Most words have accented vowels, resulting in a higher pitch. ^[15] Where the stress is placed is dependent on the “position of the word in the phrase.” ^[16] The default location for stress for nouns is on final vowel. “In words that are at the end of a phrase, accent falls on the 2nd last vowel, the 3rd last vowel, or occasionally, on the 4th vowel from the end of the word.” ^[17] For example:

[negitsõˊ: aga:tõˊ:deʔ] ‘I just heard it’ ^[18]

These sounds are long, especially in an even-numbered position. When nouns and verbs are not at the end of a phrase, accent is placed on the final vowel. ^[19] For example:

[aga:tõ:déʔ tsõ: teʔ ni:ʔ dedé:gẽ:ʔ] ‘I heard it, I didn’t see it’ ^[20]

  Morphosyntax

Cayuga is a polysynthetic language. As with other Iroquoian languages, the verbal template contains an optional prepronominal prefix, a pronominal prefix (indicating agreement), an optional incorporated noun, a verbal root, and an aspectual suffix. The nominal template consists of an agreement prefix (usually neuter for non-possessed nouns), the nominal root, and a suffix.

  Notes

1. ^ Froman, Frances, Alfred Keye, Lottie Keye and Carrie Dyck. English-Cayuga/Cayuga-English Dictionary. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002, p. xii
2. ^ Froman, 2002, p. xxxii
3. ^ Froman, 2002, p. xxxi
4. ^ Froman, 2002, p. xxxi
5. ^ Froman, 2002, p. xxx-xxxii
6. ^ Froman, 2002, p.xxxii
7. ^ Froman, 2002, p. xxxii
8. ^ Froman, 2002, p. xxxi
9. ^ Froman, 2002, p. xxxvi-xxxviii
10. ^ Froman, 2002, p. xxxvi
11. ^ Froman, 2002, p. xxxvi
12. ^ Froman, 2002, p. xxxvi
13. ^ Froman, 2002, p. xxxvi
14. ^ Froman, 2002, p. xxxvi
15. ^ Froman, 2002, p. xxxii
16. ^ Froman, 2002, p. xxxii
17. ^ Froman, 2002, p. xxxii
18. ^ Froman, 2002, p. xxxiii
19. ^ Froman, 2002, p. xxxii
20. ^ Froman, 2002, p. xxxiii

  References

• Froman, Frances, Alfred Keye, Lottie Keye and Carrie Dyck. English-Cayuga/Cayuga-English Dictionary. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002.
• Mithun, Marianne (1999). The Languages of Native North America. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29875-X. 
• Rijkhoff, Jan (2002). The Noun Phrase. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-823782-0. 

  Further reading

• Henry, Reginald and Marianne Mithun. Watęwayęstanih: A Cayuga Teaching Grammar. Brantford, Ontario: Woodland Indian Cultural Educational Centre. Available online at http://www.mun.ca/cayuga/cayuga/Wadenwayenstanih.pdf

  External links

• Cayuga: Our Oral Legacy (COOL)
• Cayuga: Our Oral Legacy (COOL)(NEW)
• Cayuga at LanguageGeek
• Ohwęjagehká: Ha’degaénage: Cayuga
• Sgę́nǫ’ Gahnawiyo’geh! - How to say "hello" in Cayuga
• "School fights to revive native Canadian language". Reuters. 2008-02-15. http://www.reuters.com/article/scienceNews/idUSN1448234720080215. Retrieved 2008-02-16. 

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